Millets, the staple food found in arid and semi-arid regions, are rich in bioactive chemicals, micronutrients, vitamins, complex carbohydrates, balanced amino acid-enriched proteins, and dietary fibers. These phytochemicals help to regulate blood pressure, cardiovascular health, protect against thyroid diseases, have anticancer, anti-hypersensitive, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. They also have anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anti-diabetic properties, making them economically and nutritionally essential for health management. Millets contain 7-12% proteins, 2-5% fats, 65-75% carbohydrates, and 15-20% dietary fiber. Their unique microflora has potent probiotic effects, and their derived compounds exhibit DNA-protecting abilities. This review provides comprehensive information about millet distribution, taxonomy, derived phytochemicals, and associated health benefits. Millet cultivation helps to reduce the carbon footprint and can be cultivated under boreal conditions, has huge capabilities to grow under drought and widely recognized as climate-resilient crop.

Millets are versatile, small-sized grains with therapeutic significance due to their vitamins, minerals, and bioactive substances, which promote human health and assist in healing. These archeological mainstays are also known as nutracereals because of their excellent nutritional content. Pearl millet, and finger millet are major millets; foxtail millet, little millet, kodo millet, proso millet, and barnyard millet are minor millets (Table 1). After being harvested and cleaned, major millets may be utilized right away, while small millets require primary processing to gently remove the outer layers of grain, which are likewise rich in antioxidants (Jacob et al., 2024) and have been named as nutricereals. Ancient Indian and Chines literature reveals that millets have been recognized with huge medicinal value.

The nutritional benefits of millets have become more popular due to increased awareness of their nutritional value. Millets are composed of 8–12% proteins, 2-5?t, 9–15% fiber, and 60-75?rbohydrates (carbs). They include more prolamin and important amino acids, which improves the digestion of proteins. Millets have been demonstrated to lower the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, improve glycemic management, lower BMI, and slow the progression of prediabetes (Krishnan et al., 2021; Rani et al., 2024)). These are safe for those having celiac disease and are gluten-free. Millets' nutritious richness makes them ideal for weaning and health-conscious dishes. By promoting satiety, the phytochemicals in millets, namely proanthocyanidins, offer anti-obesity properties. Since ancient times, millet meals and products are used and have been known to exist for the prevention and treatment various diseases for health management. The medicinal and therapeutic qualities of millets in preventing and treating several diseases, maladies, and lifestyle issues are included in this review article, along with their traditional medical background.

Millets are highly adaptive to a wide range of ecological conditions and thrive well in rain-fed; arid climate and they have minimal requirement of water, fertilizers, and pesticides. Health-promoting nutritious crop: Compared to other cereals they have superior micronutrient profile and bioactive flavonoids. Millets have a low Glycemic Index (GI) and also associated with the prevention of diabetes.They are good source of minerals like iron, zinc, and calcium. Millets are gluten-free and are consumable for celiac disease patients. They exhibit beneficial effects on the management and prevention of hyperlipidemia and risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Millets are helpful in the reduction of weight, BMI, and high blood pressure. In India, millets are generally consumed with legumes, creates with mutual supplementation of proteins that increases the amino acid content, and enhances the overall digestibility of proteins. Millet based value-added products are available as ready to cook, ready to eat category and are now easily accessible and available in the global market. Millets are used for dual purposes as food as well as fodder, which is attracting the farming for cultivation. 

Millets, one of the first crops produced in human history, have roots dating back to ancient times (Gupta & Das, 2005). Around 10,000 years ago, people domesticated them throughout Africa and Asia, because of their nutritional value and resistance to different agroclimatic conditions, and they were crucial for population maintenance (Harlan, 1992). Both the Harappan culture and the ancient Chinese dynasties relied heavily on millets in their diets.

Millets were introduced to Europe at the start of the Christian period and to India around 3,000 years ago. Many varieties of them may be found in the ancient sites of Harrapa and Mohenjadaro, and they have been a component of the human food chain from the beginning of time (Gupta & Das, 2005). 'The ruler of millet' was the nickname given to Hou Chi, the leader of the Shang Dynasty, and millet was used in Africans' cuisine. The philosopher Kanva pours foxtail millet as he bids Shakuntala farewell at Dushanta's palace, and there are numerous allusions to millets in Indian Vedic writings such as Sathapatha Brahmana.

The origins of millet may be traced back to China, where it was revered as a crop. It was also used to make bread in the middle Ages and was referenced in the Hebrew Bible. Millet flourished in the arid Sahara, and early Egyptians learnt how to grow it from Africans.

Types	Morphological Appearance	Origin	Shape and size	Color	Functions
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum		Tropical West Africa (Sahel)	Size 3–4 mm length Shape - Ovoid	Color- brown, grey, pale yellow,  or Purple.	Celiac disease can be avoided by eating gluten-free meals. It strengthens immunity to stop mice from becoming pathogenic due to Shigella.
Finger millet (Eleusine Coracana)		East Central Africa (Uganda)	Shape – Spherical Size - 1–2 mm in dia	Color - Light brown to dark Brown.	It speeds up wound healing and lessens tissue damage in diabetic rats.  Prevents cardiovascular disease by lowering plasma triglycerides in hyperlipidemic rats.
Foxtail millet (Setaria italic)		China	Shape - Ovoid Size -2mm length	Color - Pale yellow to orange	According to research on animals, ethanol prevents mice from suffering liver damage, lowers cholesterol, prevents diabetes in those who are glucose intolerant, and protects against colon cancer.
Proso millet (Panicum Miliaceum)		Central and eastern Asia	Size - 3 mm long and 2 mm in dia Shape - Spherical to oval	Color - White cream, yellow, orange	Celiac disease prevention and gluten-free. The risk of type 2 diabetes is decreased by its low glycemic index.
Barnyard millet (Echinochloa Crusgalli)		Japan & India	Size – 2-3 mm long Shape – Tiny round	Color – White	Carcinogenesis in HT-29 human colon cancer cells is inhibited by apoptosis. Protein glycation and glycoxidation, which lead to diabetes, are decreased by its phenolic content.
Kodo millet (Paspalum Scrobiculatum )		India & West Africa	Size - 1.2 to 9.5 μm long Shape - Elliptical to oval	Color- Blackish brown to dark brown	In female humans, it lowers the glycemic index, reduces diabetes, and has antioxidant properties.
Little millet (Panicum Sumatrense)		Southeast Asia	Size - 1.8 to 1.9 mm long Shape - Elliptical to Oval	Color - Grey to straw white	It offers defense against contemporary metabolic diseases due to the presence of polyphenols.

Table 1. Distinctive characters of different types of Millets.

3. Global Millet Production 

Millets are a staple cereal grain consumed all over the world, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa, particularly China and India. Their agro-industrial relevance and high nutritional content make them valuable (Rasika et al., 2024).

Millet is the sixth-highest-producing crop in the world, and India is the world's largest producer. It is anticipated that millet output would drop 4.1% during 2023–2024 to 30.802 million metric tons. Nonetheless, millet production has remained steady, with an expected 28 million metric tons produced in 2023 (Fig. 1 and Fig.2). Africa is where most millet is grown, followed by Asia, where India is the biggest producer. Despite not being a significant food crop in developed nations, millet is a staple in the diets of many people in developing nations (Mundus Agri, 2024). Since millets are drought-resistant, farmers have started growing them, which has led to a steady increase in millet output in India. The production of millet has been encouraged by the Indian government via programs such as the National Food Security Mission, and it is expected to keep growing. India would produce 17.32 million tons of millet in total in 2022–2023 (APEDA, 2023).

Figure 1: World production of millet (million tonnes), (Mundus Agri, 2024)

Figure 2: State wise production of millet (APEDA, 2023)

4. Compositions of Millets and their Potential as a Superfood

Maintaining physical health and maximizing the body's genetic potential depend on eating a balanced diet. A fantastic and affordable source of proteins, calcium, dietary fiber, and polyphenols are cereals such as millets (Anjali et al., 2021). In addition to vitamins and minerals, its nutritional makeup consists of 60–70?rbs, 1.5–5?t, 7–11% proteins, and 2-7% lipids. 50–75?rbohydrate, vitamin B, antioxidants, and minerals including iron, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese are all present in millet grain (Table 2). Additionally, it includes oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, among other necessary fatty acids, both free and bound (Devi et al, 2011).

While lysine and threonine are absent from millet proteins, they are abundant in important amino acids, especially those that contain sulfur, such as cysteine and methionine. Linoleic acid and tocopherols are found in millet oil. Phosphorus and important complex B vitamins are found in millet grains, which are alkaline and gluten-free and necessary for the creation of energy (Anjali et al., 2021). Pearl millet is rich in antioxidants, minerals, dietary fibers, and resistant starch. It has significant levels of lipids (4-6%) and proteins (12-16%). Because finger millet has a lot of sulfur-rich amino acids, it includes unique proteins. Additionally, finger millet has the highest calcium content (300–350 mg/100 g). Small millets frequently have higher nutritional value than fine grains.

Millets contain a wide range of micronutrients and phytochemicals, including ferulic acid, β-glucan, phythates, protocatechuic acid, inulin, sterols, lignan-resistant starch, dietary fiber, carotenoids, and tocopherol (Liu, 2007). They are abundant in flavonoids and phenolic tannins, with phenolic tannins serving as the primary polyphenols.

Table 2: Nutritional composition of different types of millets.

(Nutritional values may differ based on the growing conditions and the species being used).

Above table shows that millets are also an excellent source of micronutrients such as iron (0.5–10 mg/100 g), calcium (15–350 mg/100 g), zinc (0.5–4 mg/100 g), and vitamins such as niacin (1–7 mg/100 g) and thiamine (0.1–0.8 mg/100 g). The greatest iron level is found in barnyard millet, which has 12-18 mg/100g. Finger millet has 300–350 mg/100g of calcium, which is around ten times higher than wheat, making it one of the greatest vegetarian sources. Millets include secondary metabolites called phenolics (flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins), phytosterols, and policosanols, which act as antioxidants and reduce the harm that free radicals do to the body (Shankaramurthy et al., 2019). Millets are higher in the B vitamins thiamine and niacin than other grains. 

Millet has a dietary fiber content that is equivalent to whole wheat and nearly double that of rice. Millets include both soluble and insoluble portions of 

dietary fiber (Fig. 3), with the soluble fibers being pectins, b-glucans, and arabinoxylans, and the insoluble fibers being hemicellulose and cellulose. Two important dietary fiber sources are finger millet and pearl millet.

Due to their easy digestion and bioavailability, millets can help avoid metabolic diseases and rectify lifestyle issues. Promising outcomes in enhancing performance and health, including anemia, have been shown in diet-based experiments.  Children in India's elementary schools that regularly consume multi-millet health mixes have demonstrated improvements in their anthropometric indices. Preschoolers who get amylase-rich malted millet blends as supplements for four months also exhibit a notable rise in weight, according to studies. Adolescent females who participated in a randomized clinical trial program utilizing the Indian sweet pearl millet ladoo had significantly higher mean hemoglobin levels. Adolescent schoolgirls should take dietary supplements (Jacob et al., 2024).

Figure 3: Dietary fiber present in 100g of millets (Jacob et al., (2024); Goudar et al., (2023).

5. Consumption Pattern of Millets

In semi-arid parts of India, millets—a neglected and underused species—are cultivated in rain-fed areas. Their dietary fiber, iron, calcium, zinc, potassium, and micronutrients are all abundant. Although millet proteins lack lysine and tryptophan, they can be balanced by eating animal and legume proteins (Krishnamurthy et al., 2024). Millets are beneficial to health because of their distinct phytochemical composition and nutritional value. Because of their adaptability and climatic resilience, they are a wise addition to daily meals to improve nutrition security.

The Indian government termed them "Nutri-cereals" in 2023, the same year the UN declared 2023 to be the year of millets. With the sale of several millet products, millet is becoming more and more popular in India. The public is ignorant that certain millets may be polished like rice, although the majority of millets marketed in India are extremely polished. Little millet and unpolished foxtail have a high glycemic index (GI) (Anitha et al., 2022). White rice and wheat are the two most often eaten grain mainstays in Indian cuisine. Diets based on refined grains may raise the risk of noncommunicable illnesses and the glycemic load.  Adequate amounts of vegetables, fruits, and pulses should be included in the daily diet, along with millets as a source of dietary fiber and micronutrients, as part of a comprehensive strategy to combat malnutrition in India (Kane-Potaka et al., 2021).

Table 3. Millet consumption rates by gender and age group based on our survey.

Frequency of millets consumption 

According to a survey, 41% of participants drank millet-based concoctions one to three times a week, with respondents between the ages of 25 and 35 consuming them most frequently (Table 3). Gender, frequency of intake, reasons for consuming, mealtime, and millet cooking option did not significantly correlate (Krishnamurthy et al., 2024). Consumption of millets was significantly correlated with monthly income and family size, with bigger households consuming millets more frequently.

According to the report, millets are most commonly consumed by women and those 25 to 35 years of age. Consumption was positively impacted by monthly income but not by gender. All respondents ate millets due to their nutritional value and health benefits. The amount of millets ingested, however, is also influenced by age, wealth, and education, according to studies. This implies that age, income, and gender all affect millet consumption (Barratry et al., 2018).

The creation and acceptance of healthier convenience food items based on millet might increase millet intake since millet is regarded as a nutrient-dense and healthful grain. The traditional character of millets is that they are consumed in joint families. According to the International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics, which conducted a face-to-face study with 15,500 participants, the main motivations for eating millets in urban areas are flavor, weight loss, and health improvement. Breakfast is the most popular time to eat millets, and in India, porridge is the most popular way to prepare them.

India consumes millets in many different forms, however the biggest consumption of ready-to-eat millets in metropolitan areas is seen in Bengaluru and Ahmedabad. Millets are often eaten as idli, kali, and upma in southern regions. Koozh and millet porridge are common in Tamil Nadu, however in Karnataka, they are eaten as simple cooked, upma, and paddu. Millets are most frequently consumed as ready-to-eat goods (46%), with porridge coming in second. Porridges have greater glycemic reactions than grain-based dishes because they include more gelatinized starch, finer-particle flours, and are cooked in excess of water. Whole grain diets that have a lower glycemic index (GI) are advised since diabetes and other chronic illnesses are becoming more common in India (Antony et al., 2020).

6. Health Management through Multi-Millets 

Millets are a great way to boost your health because they are full of nutrients and antioxidants. Eating millets can promote lung health, lessen the risk of cancer, improve the digestive system, and lower the risk of heart disease, and diabetes. They also offer protection against degenerative illnesses such as Parkinson's disease and metabolic syndrome (Dayakar et al., 2018). Oligosaccharides, resistant starch, lipids, and antioxidants such as avenanthramides, phenolic acids, lignans, phytosterols and flavonoids are among the vital elements found in millets. Consumed as a functional food or nutraceutical, these nutrients are vital for general health. Antioxidants and phytochemicals that promote health can be found in millets (Himanshu et al., 2018). Antioxidants such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and avenanthramides are present, along with hormone-active substances including phytosterols, lignans, and antinutrients. Millet must be recognized as a nutraceutical and functional food since it provides vital proteins, dietary fibers, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants (Rajan et al., 2023).  Millets have been shown to lower blood pressure, cholesterol, prolong the time it takes for the stomach to empty, slow down the absorption of fat, decrease the risk of developing cancer, and prevent heart disease and cancer. In its most recent dietary guidelines, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) placed grains and grain products at the base of the food pyramid to highlight their significance in a balanced diet (USDA, 2000). Here is a quick summary of some of the major advantages of millets:

6.1 Antioxidant contents

Phytochemicals and micronutrients such as sterols, phenolics, lignans, resistant starch, inulin, β-glucan, phytates, dietary fiber, tocopherol, and carotenoids are abundant in millets. These plant polyphenols have been investigated for their possible health advantages, which include lowering the risk of aging, infections, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative illnesses (Rakesh et al., 2023). By decreasing the stiffness of elastic tissue, finger millet grains' proto-catechuic acid slows down aging by preventing collagen cross-linking. Bind phenolic extracts, both soluble and insoluble, from different types of millet possess reducing, metal-chelating, and antioxidant properties. Additionally, barnyard millet grains include useful components including β-glucan, and γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) which lower blood lipid levels and act as antioxidants (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2010). Finger millet grains' seed coats are rich in phenolic compounds; the white and brown kinds include 0.04-0.09% and 0.08-3.47% polyphenols, respectively. Millet contains flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins that support the immune system and function as antioxidants (Rakesh et al., 2023).

Finger, kodo, foxtail, pearl, little and proso millets are among the millet varieties that demonstrate reducing, metal-chelating, and antioxidant properties in both insoluble and soluble bound phenolic extracts. According to Dayakar et al. (2017), foxtail millet has 3.34 mg of tocopherol per 100 g and 47 mg of polyphenolics, whereas proso millet contains 29 mg of polyphenolics and 2.22 mg of tocopherol per 100 g. Radical cation scavenging activity and polyphenolic concentration were shown to be positively correlated. Phenolic acids, dehydrotriferulates, dehydrodiferulates, flavan-3-ol monomers and dimers, flavonols, flavanonols, and flavones were among the more than 50 phenolic compounds found in four phenolic fractions of millet grains. These substances can be utilized as natural antioxidant sources and as functional food additives. 

Electron spin resonance screening of many millet varieties in India has revealed that finger millet extracts had substantial radical-scavenging activity, outperforming that of rice and wheat, Electron spin resonance screening of numerous Indian millet varieties has shown that finger millet extracts have substantial radical-scavenging activity, outperforming that of, rice and wheat other millet species. Defatted foxtail millet protein hydrolysates have also demonstrated potent antioxidant qualities (Mohamed et al., 2012). Millets can thus be employed as a nutraceutical and functional food component to promote health and reduce illness risk, as well as a natural antioxidant source in food applications.

Table 4. Health benefits of multi-millets

6.2 Control of Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a condition characterized by metabolic and hyperglycemia changes. Type 1 diabetes is brought on by an insufficient amount of insulin, but type 2 diabetes is brought on by insulin resistance and a reduced insulin secretory response (Rakesh et al., 2023). While alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase are safe natural inhibitors, postprandial hyperglycemia requires synthetic inhibitors. According to epidemiological studies, people who eat millet have a decreased incidence of diabetes mellitus, which suggests that eating a whole grain diet might help prevent and manage the condition. More fiber in finger millet than in rice or wheat may help reduce plasma glucose levels. Foods made from whole grains may have a reduced glycemic response because they include antinutritional ingredients that restrict the digestion of starches. Research has indicated that finger millet influences the level of antioxidants in the skin, the generation of nerve growth factors, and the properties of tissue healing (Reddy, 2017). By lowering blood sugar levels and boosting antioxidant status, a four-week finger millet diet accelerated the healing of skin lesions in diabetic rats.

 Millet phenolic compounds have demonstrated potential as anti-diabetic medicines. Finger millet polyphenols (FMPs) inhibit aldose reductase (AR), making them a significant antioxidant and anti-diabetic component. FMPs may help humans avoid developing cataracts by reducing the production of cataract eye lenses. Additionally, pancreatic amylase and -glucosidase synthesis is considerably decreased by the phenolic chemicals found in millet seed coat. However, further research is required to confirm that millet grains, fractions, and extracts have anti-diabetic effects on both people and animals (Rakesh et al., 2023).

Pearl millet: A high-fiber grain, pearl millet helps decrease triglyceride levels and improve insulin sensitivity, which helps manage diabetes. Because it digests and releases glucose more slowly, it helps diabetics maintain blood sugar levels for longer periods of time, which makes it a useful dietary supplement.

Finger millet: The high fiber content and alpha-amylase inhibitory qualities of finger millet have been discovered to contribute to its decreased glycemic response. As a result, starch digestion and absorption are decreased, which is known to enhance antioxidant status and regulate blood sugar (Dayakar et al., 2017).  Finger millet significantly improves antioxidant status, controls blood sugar levels, and promotes cutaneous wound healing, according to rat studies. Polyphenols present in finger millet, such as protocatechuic, gallic, p-hydroxy benzoic, vanillic, ferulic, syringic, quercetin acids and trans-cinnamic, have been shown to successfully suppress cataract eye lenses. Strong evidence that finer millet protein inhibits human cataract genesis is presented by these investigations. According to reports, finger millet, particularly the dehulled types, can help those with type 2 diabetes (Sireesha et al., 2011).  The glycemic index for both heat-treated and dehulled millet was 41.7. Research conducted in vitro has demonstrated that extruded goods manufactured from a mix of millet, buckwheat, and amaranth had a considerable reduction in both immediately and slowly digested carbs (Brennan et al., 2012). 

Barnyard Millet: According to reports, barnyard millet, particularly the dehulled types, is good for those with type 2 diabetes since its glycemic index was 41.7 after being heat-treated and 50.0 after dehulling (Ugare et al., 2011). 

Foxtail Millet: According to Sireesha et al. (2011), foxtail millet aqueous extracts exhibit remarkable anti-hyperglycemic qualities. 

Proso Millet: Proso millet has been shown to improve glycemic responses and insulin in genetically obese type 2 diabetic mice when fed a high-fat diet (Dayakar et al., 2017). 

6.3 Cardiovascular Diseases

Millets, being high in potassium and magnesium, can lower the risk of heart attacks and blood pressure, particularly in cases of atherosclerosis. They reduce blood pressure and cardiovascular risk by acting as vasodilators (Lee et al., 2010). Millets contain plant lignans, which can change into animal lignans and offer protection against heart disease and several types of cancer. Millets' high fiber content also lowers cholesterol by enhancing HDL effects and removing LDL (Jacob et al., 2024). 

Rats given treated barnyard millet diets showed reduced serum cholesterol, blood glucose, and triglycerides in comparison to those fed rice and other millets, according to research. Furthermore, in genetically obese type-2 diabetic mice, proso millet increased plasma levels of adiponectin and HDL cholesterol (Dayakar et al., 2017). In addition, finger millets and proso millets considerably lowered blood triglyceride levels in comparison to sorghum and white rice. In rats with hyperlipidemia, these millets may lower plasma triglycerides, hence preventing cardiovascular disease.

Pearl millet: Millet's phytonutrients and lignin function as potent antioxidants, reducing heart-related illnesses. For this reason, pearl millet is said to be beneficial to heart health. 

Finger Millet: Research has demonstrated that proso millet and finger millet considerably reduce blood triglyceride levels in animals fed white rice and sorghum. In hyperlipidemic rats, proso millet and finger millet lower plasma triglycerides, potentially preventing cardiovascular disease (Lee et al., 2010). 

Barnyard Millet: Blood glucose, triglycerides, and serum cholesterol were lower in rats given treated barnyard millet starch than in rats fed rice and other minor millets (Dayakar et al., 2017). 

6.4 Effects on Gut Microbiota Composition

According to Fu et al.,(2020) the ratio of Firmicutes to Firmicutes (B/F) is positively correlated with plasma glucose levels, indicating that Firmicutes and Bacteroides are two main phyla in the gut microbiota (Sabuz et al., 2023). The MC and PCFM groups did not differ significantly, however the millet intervention modestly increased the B/F ratio. Compared to the NC and MC groups, the PCFM group had greater levels of Odoribacter, which may be related to the anti-diabetic impact.

The casein diet had a larger abundance of Bacteroidetes than the normal and control diets, according to Molla M.M. (2016), This might be because there were more Prevotella and Bacteroides, which increases inflammation. On the other hand, Firmicutes are more prevalent bacteria in the Ultra-Cellular Fatty Acid (UCF) diet compared to the Cellular Free-Molecular Fatty Acid (CCF) diet. At the phylum level of Firmicutes, a greater number of Allobaculum and Lactobacillus genera make Firmicutes more prevalent in the UCF diet. 

In order to maintain gut health, the UCF diet may increase the large intestine's bacterial production of butyric acids. A diet high in protein or resistant starch gives the gut microbiota energy, and this microbiome has been suggested as a possible prodrug to cure IBD and reduce DNA damage.

However, because of the Prevotella genus, which has been linked to a number of illnesses, the CCF diet could have more Bacteroidetes. Conversely, Proteobacteria were more prevalent in the UCF protein diet and less prevalent in the CE FM protein diet (Massier et al., 2021). In our laboratories, we have found rich gut microbiota of humans eating millets (unpublished).

6.5 Reduction in cancer 

Antinutrients including tannins, polyphenols, and phytic acid, which are abundant in millets, lower the risk of cancer. Phenolics work well to stop cancer from starting and spreading. The perioxidase produced from foxtail millet bran shows medicinal promise for the treatment of colon cancer (Reddy, 2017). The tannins and polyphenols in sorghum provide it antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic qualities. Ellagic acid, curcumin, quercetin, and other healthy catechins found in millets can help the body eliminate toxins and undesirable substances by neutralizing enzymatic activity in those organs and facilitating proper excretion. (Rakesh et al., 2023).

Millets are rich in "antinutrients" such tannins, phenolic acids, and phytate, which can reduce the risk of breast and colon cancer. People who consume sorghum and millet are less likely to get esophageal cancer than people who eat wheat and maize. According to a recent study, millet's phenolic chemicals may be useful in stopping cancer cells' growth and metastasis in lab settings (Rajan et al., 2023). 

Celiac disease is an immune-mediated enteropathy that develops when a person with a genetic susceptibility eats gluten. Celiac disease is one of the most prevalent chronic conditions impacting individuals globally, according to recent studies (Taylor et al., 2008).   Millets have a lot of promise for use in beverages and gluten-free foods that are appropriate for people with celiac disease. The chemical process called nonenzymatic glycosylation is important for aging and diabetes. 

Tannins, phenols, and phytotates can increase antioxidant activity in metabolic syndrome, aging, and overall health. The methanolic extracts of finger millet and kodo millet prevent collagen glycation and cross-linking, and millet grains are rich in phenolics and antioxidants, indicating that they may have anti-aging properties (Rao et al., 2017). Consequently, millet grains may be helpful in preventing cancer as well as in the development of diets for people with celiac disease.

6.6 Prevention of Osteoporosis

According to Rakesh et al. (2023), osteoporosis is a disease of the bones that arises when bone mass and mineral density decrease or when the composition and strength of bone change. Consuming a lot of naturally occurring calcium from food helps avoid bone disorders like osteoporosis. According to Kumar et al. (2013), finger millet seeds have a calcium concentration of 350 mg/100 g, which is five to ten times more than that of other grains. Therefore, consuming goods made from finger millet can help children develop more bone mass and prevent osteoporosis and other bone illnesses in adults and the elderly population.

Millets, also known as Nutri-cereals, are a staple food for 59 crore people in Asia and Africa. They are a good source of fiber, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and carbohydrates. They are essential for strengthening the immune system and preventing chronic illnesses including obesity, diabetes, cancer, heart problems, and neurological diseases. Millets can be gluten-free, are low in fat, and have a higher number of phytochemicals. The International Year of Millets (IYM) was proclaimed in 2023 by India and 72 other nations in an effort to increase demand for nutrient-dense foods. Millet may help prevent type-2 diabetes, obesity, and heart disease by enhancing glycemic management, decreasing insulin resistance and inflammation, and raising adiponectin levels. Without changing regular eating habits, a millet diet consumed daily dramatically lowers blood pressure, BMI, BF (%), and fat mass. Fiber, protein, minerals, and micronutrients all work together to lower blood pressure by lowering consumption of fat and cholesterol. To evaluate the micronutrients' bioavailability in millets, more research on advanced methods and cooking ways is required. Promoting millet consumption and advancing processing technologies are crucial because millet intake can help solve global malnutrition concerns and contribute to a balanced diet. 

This work was not funded by any organization. 

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The idea was conceptualized by A.P. Garg and Umesh Kumar, literature was surveyed by Vishal Chaudhary and monitored by Umesh Kumar and A.P. Garg. All authors contributed to the final draft of the manuscript. The present study is a part of the Ph.D. thesis of Mr. Vishal Chaudhary under the supervision of A.P. Garg and Umesh Kumar.

A.P. Garg, Orcid i.d: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0613-9495

Vishal Chaudhary and Umesh Kumar have not yet registered on ORCID